Best Cheapest Lipo Maintaner for the Money Charges Discharges Reads Voltage

Device used to provide electricity

This unit charges batteries until they reach a specific voltage, then trickle charges them until disconnected.

A simple charger for NiCD batteries that outputs 300mA of 12V DC.

A battery charger, or recharger,^[1] ^[2] is a device that stores energy in a battery by running an electric electric current through it.

The charging protocol (how much voltage or electric current for how long, and what to practice when charging is consummate) depends on the size and type of the battery being charged. Some battery types take loftier tolerance for overcharging (i.east., continued charging afterwards the battery has been fully charged) and can exist recharged by connection to a constant voltage source or a constant current source, depending on battery type. Uncomplicated chargers of this type must exist manually asunder at the end of the charge cycle. Other battery types use a timer to cutting off when charging should be complete. Other battery types cannot withstand over-charging, becoming damaged (reduced chapters, reduced lifetime), over heating or fifty-fifty exploding. The charger may have temperature or voltage sensing circuits and a microprocessor controller to safely adjust the charging electric current and voltage, make up one's mind the state of charge, and cut off at the end of charge.

Chargers may elevate the output voltage proportionally with electric current to recoup for impedance in the wires.^[3]

A trickle charger provides a relatively small corporeality of current, only enough to annul self-belch of a battery that is idle for a long time. Some battery types cannot tolerate trickle charging; attempts to practise so may upshot in harm. Lithium-ion batteries cannot handle indefinite trickle charging.^[iv]

Slow battery chargers may take several hours to complete a accuse. High-charge per unit chargers may restore most capacity much faster, but high charge per unit chargers can be more than some battery types can tolerate. Such batteries require active monitoring of the battery to protect it from overcharging. Electric vehicles ideally demand high-charge per unit chargers. For public admission, installation of such chargers and the distribution support for them is an issue in the proposed adoption of electrical cars.

C-rate [edit]

Charge and discharge rates are frequently given equally C or C-rate, which is a measure of the rate at which a battery is charged or discharged relative to its capacity. The C-rate is divers as the charge or discharge current divided by the battery's chapters to store an electrical charge. While rarely stated explicitly, the unit of the C-charge per unit is h⁻¹, equivalent to stating the battery'south capacity to store an electric charge in unit of measurement hr times current in the same unit of measurement every bit the charge or belch current. The C-charge per unit is never negative, so whether information technology describes a charging or discharging process depends on the context.

For example, for a battery with a chapters of 500 mAh, a discharge rate of 5000 mA (i.eastward., 5 A) corresponds to a C-charge per unit of 10C, significant that such a current tin discharge 10 such batteries in one 60 minutes. As well, for the aforementioned battery a charge electric current of 250 mA corresponds to a C-charge per unit of C/2, significant that this current will increase the state of charge of this battery by l% in one hour.^[5]

Since the unit of the C-rate is typically implied, some intendance is required when using it to avoid confusing it with the battery'south capacity to shop a charge, which in the SI has unit coulomb with unit symbol C.

If both the (dis)accuse current and the battery capacity in the C-rate ratio is multiplied past the battery voltage, the C-rate becomes a ratio of the (dis)charge ability to the battery's energy capacity. For instance, when the 100 kWh bombardment in a Tesla Model S P100D is undergoing supercharging at 120 kW the C-rate is 1.2C and when that bombardment delivers its maximum ability of 451 kW, its C-rate is 4.51C.

All charging and discharging of batteries generates internal heat, and the amount of rut generated is roughly proportional to the electric current involved (a battery's current state of charge, condition / history, etc. are also factors). Every bit some batteries reach their full accuse, cooling may too exist observed.^[6] Bombardment cells which accept been built to permit college C-rates than usual must make provision for increased heating. Just loftier C-ratings are attractive to end users considering such batteries can be charged more rapidly, and produce college current output in use. High C-rates typically crave the charger to advisedly monitor battery parameters such as terminal voltage and temperature to forbid overcharging and so impairment to the cells. Such loftier charging rates are possible simply with some battery types. Others volition exist damaged or peradventure overheat or catch fire. Some batteries may fifty-fifty explode.^{[ citation needed ]} For example, an automobile SLI (starting, lighting, ignition) atomic number 82-acid battery carries several risks of explosion.

Blazon [edit]

Simple charger [edit]

A simple charger works by supplying a constant DC or pulsed DC power source to a bombardment being charged. A elementary charger typically does not alter its output based on charging time or the charge on the battery. This simplicity means that a simple charger is inexpensive, just in that location are tradeoffs. Typically, a carefully designed unproblematic charger takes longer to charge a battery because information technology is set to apply a lower (i.e., safer) charging charge per unit. Notwithstanding, many batteries left on a simple charger for too long volition exist weakened or destroyed due to over-charging. These chargers as well vary in that they tin can supply either a constant voltage or a constant current, to the battery.

Uncomplicated Air conditioning-powered battery chargers usually accept much higher ripple electric current and ripple voltage than other kinds of battery chargers considering they are inexpensively designed and built. Generally, when the ripple current is within a battery's manufacturer recommended level, the ripple voltage will also exist well inside the recommended level. The maximum ripple electric current for a typical 12V 100Ah VRLA bombardment is 5 amps. As long every bit the ripple electric current is not excessive (more than than iii to 4 times the battery manufacturer recommended level), the expected life of a ripple-charged VRLA bombardment will be within 3% of the life of a constant DC-charged battery.^[7]

Fast charger [edit]

Fast chargers make use of control circuitry to rapidly charge the batteries without dissentious any of the cells in the battery. The control circuitry can exist built into the battery (generally for each cell) or in the external charging unit of measurement, or split between both. Most such chargers have a cooling fan to help keep the temperature of the cells at safe levels. Most fast chargers are besides capable of acting equally standard overnight chargers if used with standard NiMH cells that do not have the special command circuitry.

3 stage charger [edit]

To accelerate the charging time and provide continuous charging, an intelligent charger attempts to find the state of charge and status of the battery and applies a 3-stage charging scheme. The following description assumes a sealed lead acid traction bombardment at 25°C. The first phase is referred to as "bulk absorption"; the charging current will be held loftier and abiding and is express past the capacity of the charger. When the voltage on the battery reaches its outgassing voltage (2.22 volts per cell) the charger switches to the second phase and the voltage is held constant (ii.twoscore volts per jail cell). The delivered current volition decline at the maintained voltage, and when the current reaches less than 0.005C the charger enters its 3rd stage and the charger output volition exist held abiding at 2.25 volts per prison cell. In the third stage, the charging current is very small 0.005C and at this voltage the battery can be maintained at full charge and recoup for cocky-discharge.

Consecration-powered charger [edit]

Inductive bombardment chargers use electromagnetic induction to accuse batteries. A charging station sends electromagnetic energy through inductive coupling to an electrical device, which stores the energy in the batteries. This is achieved without the need for metal contacts betwixt the charger and the battery. Inductive battery chargers are normally used in electric toothbrushes and other devices used in bathrooms. Because in that location are no open up electrical contacts, there is no risk of electrocution. Nowadays it is existence used to accuse wireless phones.

Smart charger [edit]

Example of a smart charger for AA and AAA batteries with integrated brandish for status monitoring.

A smart charger can answer to the condition of a battery and modify its charging parameters appropriately, whereas "dumb" chargers employ a steady voltage, possibly through a fixed resistance. It should not be dislocated with a smart bombardment that contains a reckoner chip and communicates digitally with a smart charger about battery condition. A smart battery requires a smart charger (see Smart Battery Data).

Some smart chargers can also charge "dumb" batteries, which lack any internal electronics.

The output current of a smart charger depends upon the battery's state. An intelligent charger may monitor the bombardment's voltage, temperature or charge time to determine the optimum charge current or terminate charging.

For Ni-Cd and NiMH batteries, the voltage of the battery increases slowly during the charging process, until the battery is fully charged. Afterward that, the voltage decreases, which indicates to an intelligent charger that the battery is fully charged. Such chargers are often labeled as a ΔV, "delta-V," or sometimes "delta peak" charger, indicating that they monitor voltage change. This can crusade even an intelligent charger non to sense that the batteries are already fully charged, and continue charging. Overcharging of the batteries may upshot. Many intelligent chargers employ a variety of cut-off systems to prevent overcharging.

A typical smart charger fast-charges a battery up to about 85% of its maximum capacity in less than an hour, so switches to trickle charging, which takes several hours to top off the bombardment to its full capacity.^[8]

Motion-powered charger [edit]

Linear induction flashlight, charged by shaking along its long axis, causing magnet (visible at right) to slide through a scroll of wire (centre) to generate electricity

Several companies have begun making devices that accuse batteries using energy from human motility such as walking. One made past Tremont Electrical, consists of a magnet held betwixt two springs that can charge a bombardment as the device is moved upward and downwardly. Such products have not withal achieved meaning commercial success.^[9]

A pedal-powered charger for mobile phones, fitted into desks has been created for installation in public spaces, such as airports, railway stations and universities. They take been installed in a number of countries on several continents.^[ten]

Pulse charger [edit]

Some chargers use pulse engineering science, in which a serial of electrical pulses is fed to the bombardment. The DC pulses have a strictly controlled rise fourth dimension, pulse width, pulse repetition charge per unit (frequency) and amplitude. This engineering works with any size and type of battery, including automotive and valve-regulated ones.^[11]

With pulse charging, high instantaneous voltages are applied without overheating the battery. In a Atomic number 82–acrid battery, this breaks down lead-sulfate crystals, thus greatly extending the bombardment service life.^[12]

Several kinds of pulse chargers are patented.^[xiii] ^[14] ^[fifteen] Others are open source hardware.

Some chargers employ pulses to cheque the current bombardment state when the charger is showtime connected, so utilize constant current charging during fast charge, then utilise pulse mode to trickle accuse it.^[xvi]

Some chargers utilise "negative pulse charging," likewise chosen "reflex charging" or "burp charging." These chargers use both positive and brief negative current pulses. At that place is no significant bear witness that negative pulse charging is more effective than ordinary pulse charging.

Solar charger [edit]

Varta Solar Charger Model 57082 with two 2100mAh Ni-MH rechargeable batteries

Solar chargers catechumen low-cal energy into low voltage DC current. They are generally portable, merely tin also exist fixed mounted. Fixed mountain solar chargers are also known as solar panels. These are often connected to the electrical grid via control and interface circuits, whereas portable solar chargers are used off-filigree (i.due east. cars, boats, or RVs).

Although portable solar chargers obtain energy merely from the lord's day, they some can charge in low light like at sunset). Portable solar chargers are often used for trickle charging, though some tin completely recharge batteries.

Timer-based charger [edit]

The output of a timer charger is terminated afterwards a predetermined time interval. Timer chargers were the well-nigh common type for loftier-chapters Ni-Cd cells in the late 1990s to charge low-capacity consumer Ni-Cd cells.

Ofttimes a timer charger and set of batteries could exist bought as a packet and the charger time is set for those batteries specifically. If batteries of lower capacity are charged, then they would be overcharged, and if batteries of higher capacity were timer-charged, they would not achieve full capacity.

Timer based chargers also had the drawback that charging batteries that were not fully discharged would result in over-charging.

Trickle charger [edit]

A trickle charger is typically depression-current (normally between 5–1,500 mA). They are generally used to charge minor capacity batteries (2–30 Ah). They are besides used to maintain larger capacity batteries (> 30 Ah) in cars and boats. In larger applications, the current of the battery charger is only sufficient to provide trickle current. Depending on the engineering of the trickle charger, it can be left connected to the battery indefinitely. Some bombardment types are not suitable for trickle charging. For instance, near Li-ion batteries cannot be safely trickle charged and can cause a fire or explosion.

Universal bombardment charger–analyzer [edit]

The most sophisticated chargers are used in disquisitional applications (eastward.g. military or aviation batteries). These heavy-duty automatic "intelligent charging" systems tin be programmed with circuitous charging cycles specified by the bombardment manufacturer. The all-time are universal (i.e. can charge all battery types), and include automated chapters testing and analyzing functions.

USB-based charger [edit]

Australian and New Zealand ability socket with USB charger socket

Since the Universal Series Autobus specification provides five-volt power, it is possible to apply a USB cable to connect a device to a power supply. Products based on this approach include chargers for cellular phones, portable digital audio players, and tablet computers. They may exist fully compliant USB peripheral devices or uncontrolled, simple chargers.

Power bank [edit]

This section needs expansion. You tin can assist by calculation to information technology. (September 2020)

Single-cell USB ability depository financial institution

Power bank with digital charging state display

A ability bank is a portable device that tin can supply ability from its congenital-in battery, typically through a USB port.

Power banks have various sizes and typically contain 18650 battery cells. The smallest power banks have a unmarried jail cell. Moderately sized ones for mobile phones normally take few cells in a parallel circuit, and large ones additionally in two series.

Ability banks are popular for charging smaller battery-powered devices with USB ports such every bit mobile phones and tablet computers and can be used as a power supply for diverse USB-powered accessories such as lights, small fans and external digital photographic camera battery chargers. They commonly recharge with a USB power supply. More contempo power banks employ USB-C and may feature an additional USB-B micro port for backwards compatibility.

The power bank includes a control excursion that both regulates charging of the battery and converts the bombardment voltage to 5.0 volts for the USB port.^{[ citation needed ]} Ability banks may be able to detect a connectedness and power on automatically. If the current load is under a model-specific threshold for a specific duration, a ability banking concern may ability down automatically.^[17]

Charging state is typically indicated through four LED lamps for each quartal, whereas some college-cease models feature an exact per centum display.^[18] ^[19]

Some power banks are able to deliver power wirelessly, some are equipped with an LED flashlight for casual near-distance illumination when necessary, and some have a pass-through charging characteristic which allows providing power through their USB ports while existence charged themselves simultaneously. ^[xx]

Some larger power banks have DC connector (or barrel connector) for higher power demands such as laptop computers.

Bombardment cases [edit]

Battery cases are minor power banks attached to the rear side of a mobile phone like a case. Power may be delivered through the USB charging ports,^[21] or wirelessly.^[22]

Battery cases as well be in the form of a photographic camera grip accompaniment, equally was for the Nokia Lumia 1020.^[23]

For mobile phones with removable rear embrace, extended batteries exist. These are larger internal batteries attached with a dedicated, more spacious rear cover replacing the default one. A disadvantage is incompatibility with other telephone cases while fastened.^[24]

Applications [edit]

Since a battery charger is intended to be connected to a bombardment, it may not have voltage regulation or filtering of the DC voltage output; it is cheaper to make them that style. Battery chargers equipped with both voltage regulation and filtering are sometimes termed battery eliminators.

Bombardment charger for vehicles [edit]

There are two main types of chargers used for vehicles:

To recharge a fuel vehicle's starter bombardment, where a modular charger is used; typically an iii-stage charger.
To recharge an electric vehicle (EV) battery pack; run across Charging station.

Chargers for car batteries come in varying ratings. Chargers that are rated up to ii amperes may be used to maintain charge on parked vehicle batteries or for minor batteries on garden tractors or similar equipment. A motorist may go along a charger rated a few amperes to ten or fifteen amperes for maintenance of automobile batteries or to recharge a vehicle battery that has accidentally discharged. Service stations and commercial garages will have a big charger to fully charge a battery in an hour or 2; ofttimes these chargers can briefly source the hundreds of amperes required to crank an internal combustion engine starter.

Electric vehicle batteries [edit]

Electrical vehicle battery chargers (ECS) come up in a diversity of brands and characteristics. These chargers vary from 1 kW to 7.five kW maximum accuse charge per unit. Some use algorithm charge curves, others utilize constant voltage, abiding current. Some are programmable by the end user through a CAN port, some accept dials for maximum voltage and amperage, some are preset to specified battery pack voltage, amp-hour and chemical science. Prices range from $400 to $4500.

A ten amp-hour battery could accept 15 hours to reach a fully charged state from a fully discharged condition with a 1 amp charger every bit it would require roughly ane.5 times the battery's chapters.

Public EV charging stations provide 6 kW (host power of 208 to 240 VAC off a twoscore amp circuit). vi kW will recharge an EV roughly vi times faster than 1 kW overnight charging.

Rapid charging results in even faster recharge times and is limited only by available AC ability, battery type, and the blazon of charging arrangement.^[25]

Onboard EV chargers (change AC power to DC ability to recharge the EV's pack) tin be:

Isolated: they brand no physical connection between the A/C electrical mains and the batteries being charged. These typically employ some form of inductive connectedness betwixt the grid and a charging vehicle. Some isolated chargers may be used in parallel. This allows for an increased accuse electric current and reduced charging times. The battery has a maximum current rating that cannot be exceeded
Not-isolated: the battery charger has a direct electrical connexion to the A/C outlet's wiring. Non-isolated chargers cannot be used in parallel.

Power-factor correction (PFC) chargers can more closely approach the maximum current the plug can deliver, shortening charging time.

Charge stations [edit]

Projection Better Place was deploying a network of charging stations and subsidizing vehicle bombardment costs through leases and credits until filing for defalcation in May 2013.

Auxiliary charger designed to fit a diverseness of proprietary devices

Consecration-powered charging [edit]

Researchers at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) have developed an electric transport organisation (chosen Online Electric Vehicle, OLEV) where the vehicles get their ability needs from cables underneath the surface of the road via inductive charging, (where a power source is placed underneath the road surface and ability is wirelessly picked up on the vehicle itself.^[26]

Mobile telephone charger [edit]

Micro USB mobile phone charger

Charger for automobile auxiliary power outlets

Mobile phone charging station

Well-nigh mobile telephone chargers are not really chargers, simply power adapters that provide a power source for the charging circuitry which is almost ever contained within the mobile phone. Older ones are notoriously diverse, having a broad variety of DC connector-styles and voltages, about of which are not uniform with other manufacturers' phones or fifty-fifty different models of phones from a single manufacturer. Some higher-end models characteristic multiple ports are equipped with a display which indicates output current.^[27] Some support advice protocols for charging parameters such as Qualcomm Quick Accuse or MediaTek Pump Express.

Chargers for "12V" automobile auxiliary power outlet may support input voltages of up to 24 or 32 Volts (direct current) to ensure compatibility, and be equipped with a display to monitor current or the voltage of the vehicle's electric organization.^[28]

China, the European Commission and other countries are making a national standard on mobile phone chargers using the USB standard.^[29] In June 2009, 10 of the globe'south largest mobile phone manufacturers signed a Memorandum of Understanding to develop specifications for and support a microUSB-equipped common External Ability Supply (EPS) for all data-enabled mobile phones sold in the EU.^[30] On Oct 22, 2009, the International Telecommunication Marriage announced a standard for a universal charger for mobile handsets (Micro-USB).^[31]

Stationary battery plants [edit]

Telecommunications, electric power, and figurer uninterruptible power supply facilities may have very large standby battery banks (installed in battery rooms) to maintain disquisitional loads for several hours during interruptions of primary filigree ability. Such chargers are permanently installed and equipped with temperature compensation, supervisory alarms for various organization faults, and often redundant contained power supplies and redundant rectifier systems. Chargers for stationary battery plants may have adequate voltage regulation and filtration and sufficient electric current capacity to permit the battery to be disconnected for maintenance, while the charger supplies the directly current (DC) arrangement load. Capacity of the charger is specified to maintain the organisation load and recharge a completely discharged battery within, say, 8 hours or other interval.

Prolonging bombardment life [edit]

A properly designed charger can allow batteries to reach their full wheel life.Excess charging current, lengthy overcharging, or cell reversal in a multiple cell pack cause damage to cells and limit the life expectancy of a battery.

Most mod prison cell phones, laptop and tablet computers, and most electric vehicles use Lithium-ion batteries.^[32] These batteries final longest if the battery is often charged; fully discharging the cells will degrade their chapters relatively rapidly, merely about such batteries are used in equipment which can sense the arroyo of total discharge and discontinue equipment apply.^{[ commendation needed ]} When stored later charging, lithium battery cells degrade more while fully charged than if they are only forty-50% charged. Every bit with all battery types, deposition also occurs faster at higher temperatures. Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is acquired past an increased internal battery resistance frequently due to the cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of the battery, resulting in less net current available to exist drawn from the bombardment.^{[ commendation needed ]} However, if Li-ION cells are discharged below a certain voltage a chemical reaction occurs that make them unsafe if recharged, which is why many such batteries in consumer goods now accept an "electronic fuse" that permanently disables them if the voltage falls below a fix level. The electronic fuse circuitry draws a small amount of current from the bombardment, which means that if a laptop battery is left for a long time without charging it, and with a very low initial state of charge, the battery may be permanently destroyed.

Motor vehicles, such as boats, RVs, ATVs, motorcycles, cars, trucks, etc. have used lead–acid batteries. These batteries employ a sulfuric acid electrolyte and can generally be charged and discharged without exhibiting memory effect, though sulfation (a chemical reaction in the bombardment which deposits a layer of sulfates on the lead) will occur over time. Typically sulfated batteries are merely replaced with new batteries, and the old ones recycled. Lead–acid batteries will experience essentially longer life when a maintenance charger is used to "float accuse" the bombardment. This prevents the battery from e'er being below 100% charge, preventing sulfate from forming. Proper temperature compensated float voltage should exist used to achieve the best results.

References [edit]

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^ "recharge - definition of recharge in English - Oxford Dictionaries". Retrieved 26 March 2017.
^ Charger with output voltage compensation – United States Patent 7602151
^ Phil Weicker, A Systems Arroyo to Lithium-Ion Battery Direction, Artech House, 2013 ISBN 1608076598 page 26
^ "A Guide to Understanding Battery Specifications MIT Electric Vehicle Team" (PDF). web.mit.edu. December 2008. Retrieved May 10, 2017.
^ "LM2576,LM3420,LP2951,LP2952 Battery Charging" (PDF). www.ti.com. July 2018. Retrieved July 29, 2018.
^ "Effects of AC Ripple Current on VRLA Bombardment Life" by Emerson Network Power
^ Dave Etchells. "The Bang-up Battery Shootout".
^ Martin LaMonica, CNET. "Motion-powered gadget charger back on track." Jul 1, 2011. Retrieved Jul 1, 2011.
^ "Delayed at the station? Get pedalling to accuse your phone". Connexion France. iv April 2017.
^ "AN913: Switch-Mode, Linear, and Pulse Charging Techniques for Li+ Battery in Mobile Phones and PDAs". Maxim. 2001.
^ "Lead–acrid bombardment sulfation". Archived from the original on 2007-04-02.
^ ""fast pulse battery charger" patent". 2003. Archived from the original on 2011-02-28. Retrieved 2008-01-21 .
^ "Bombardment charger with current pulse regulation" patented 1981 U.s. Patent 4355275
^ "Pulse-charge battery charger" patented 1997 United States Patent 5633574
^ "Pulse Maintenance charging." Archived March 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
^ "Port detection for power banks". Texas Instruments. April 2016. Retrieved 2021-09-13 .
^ "INIU Portable Power Banking company xx,000mAh Battery Charger". Maris Review. 10 June 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
^ Barton, Michael (2018-x-twenty). "Die RealPower Lead-15000C Powerbank im Test - Techtest". techtest.org/ (in German). Retrieved 22 August 2021.
^ "How Pass Through Tech Lets Y'all Use Power Banks In Creative Ways". RAVPower. 2018-06-01. Retrieved 2020-09-06 .
^ Stein, Scott. "Apple Smart Bombardment Case for iPhone 6S review: Addressing the iPhone's biggest weakness". CNET.
^ "Galaxy Note 7 S View Standing Embrace and Battery Pack hands on". Android Authority. 2 August 2016.
^ "IRL: Testing the Nokia Lumia 1020'due south optional photographic camera grip / battery case". Engadget. 2013-09-16.
^ Klug, Brian (2013-07-23). "Samsung Milky way Southward 4 ZeroLemon 7500 mAh Extended Battery Review". www.anandtech.com.
^ Fuji Heavy Speeds Up Recharging of R1e EV. Dark-green Car Congress (2007-09-eighteen). Retrieved on 2011-xi-11.
^ Korean electric vehicle solution. Gizmag.com. Retrieved on 2011-xi-11.
^ "Index of tested and reviewed USB ability supplies/chargers". lygte-info.dk. lygte-info. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
^ Model: YSY-C009 Qualcomm Quick Charge iii.0 Input: 12-32V Output: 4USB 5V-7A ( 35W Max ) / 1USB 9V/12V-1.8A
^ China to work out national standard for mobile telephone chargers. English.sina.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-11.
^ PC Globe:Universal Chargers are a Good Outset Jan 2009
^ Oct 22, 2009, ITU printing release Universal charger for mobile phone handsets
^ Mansoori, G. Ali; Enayati, Nader; Agyarko, L. Barnie (2015-11-05). Free energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois every bit Model State. World Scientific. ISBN9789814704021.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_charger